The (a) Effective Capacity (installations minus module degradation, failures, and end of life, and assumes no replacements) from 2000 to 2100 of each scenario compared to the capacity targets (black dashed line). The (b) annual installations including replacements to meet capacity targets and associated (c) annual virgin material demands accounting for material circularity for all scenarios 2000–2100. In (b), the theoretical minimum deployment (i.e. immortal modules) is shown in the black dashed line. Post-2050 installations and material demands are the average annual rate during each decade.